The enterprise of a realistic
metaphysics is rendered extremely difficult by the ease with which a
philosopher can mistake logic for metaphysics and the facility with
which he can structure reality by the imposition of logical forms.
It makes sense to affirm of one thing
or another that it exists. It also makes sense to affirm, if only as
a working hypothesis, that the things that exist form some kind of
connected whole—a
community of being or of beings.
Insofar as such affirmations express
the state-of-affairs in the extra-cognitional world, they provide a
basis from which metaphysical enquiry can begin. Too often, however,
these and similar statements serve only as a starting-point for the
logical and imaginational manipulation of “being” and “community of
beings” quite out of touch with the extra-cognitional world.
This paper examines what I consider
to be just such substitutions of “logic” for metaphysics. It deals
first with the formulation of the problem of the “one and the many,”
second with efforts to say something meaningful about being in the
language of existence and essence. Finally, it attempts to state
conclusions about the approach to things which is required in a
realistic metaphysics.
I wish to make it clear that I am
using the world “logical” in the sense of cognitional or ideal. I
intend to hold in abeyance the admitted fact that the cognitional is
itself real and to base myself on the judgment that the
extra-cognitional order seems, in many ways to be different from the
cognitional.
Perhaps the most obvious instances of
the intrusion of logic into metaphysics are certain formulations of
the problem of “the one and the many.” For example, if the question
is raised in some such form as “Being ought to be one, how then is it
many,” the “ought” here is a logical demand. Being “ought to
be one” because the intellect is able, or apparently able, to form one
concept which, in some fashion, covers all things. At any rate, one
word, “being,” can be applied to all things. Without
investigating whether this application is warranted or unwarranted, or
delineating the nature of the pseudo-concept of being, I ask whether
this situation indicates a demand for unity among things. It would
seem that in the face of the given manyness of things it is highly
unlikely that they “ought” to be one. It also appears redundant to
enquire how they can be many. In the face of a matter of fact
the enquiry “How can this be?” seems beside the point. It is.
The philosopher for whom being “ought
to” be one, but is unfortunately many, finds himself involved in an
exercise of logic and imagination which has no properly metaphysical
content. Being “ought” to be one, yet it is many, therefore there
“must be” a second principle, other than being, which differentiates
one being from another.
This second principle represents
itself imaginationally as the disruptor of a primal unity. The being
which was one and, considered in itself, should have remained one, is
pictured as being broken up, under the influenced of the second
principle, into many beings. It makes no difference whether the
influence of the second principle be called active, or, as is more
commonly the case, passive. Independent of the wishes of the
philosopher, the second principle necessarily represents itself to him
as a force which his able to disrupt being, divert it from its
rightful status, modify it to become this or that “limited” being.
To picture reality in terms of being
and a differentiator of being involves a pseudo-history of being.
Being is pictured as originally one, but disrupted and altered
in a temporal sequence by the work of the differentiator. It may be
objected that I am speaking here only of the necessary imaginational
representation of the notion of differentiator: someone might hold
that the oneness of being “as being” is not prior in time, but prior
in nature, metaphysically primary. But this attempt to rise above a
history of being would compel one to say that being “as being” is both
present and not present in “differentiated” being. Present, because
if the priority of being as being is an a-temporal priority, the
differentiated being must now be or have being-as-being. Yet
not present, since the being of the differentiated being is a
differentiated or modified now: it is not now
being-as-being.
A way out of the above contradiction
would be to view each differentiated being as a juxtaposition of
being-as-being and the differentiator. In this case, however, the
differentiated being would have no unity, but would be a syncretion of
two unreconciled elements. The attempt to “explain” the many would
have resulted simply in the internal doubling of each of the many
things—a further
manyness.
But when the notion of a
differentiator of being is forced back to a frankly temporal meaning,
the situation is most unsatisfactory. It is impossible to point to a
time when a “differentiated” being, this cow for example, “was”
being-as-being. And it is of no value at this point to invoke the
derivation (either temporal or a-temporal) of the differentiated
beings from a First Cause taken to be being-as-being. It may be true
that a cause is in some fashion in its effect. But if the cause is
present in its full reality in the effect there seems to be no
difference between them. Thus the derivation of a differentiated
being from a cause which is being-as-being cannot indicate the
presence of being-as-being as a constituent of the differentiated
being. If one claims that being-as-being is present in the
differentiated being due to the influence of the First Cause he must
immediately deny it in order to maintain the difference between the
cause and the effect.
The whole effort therefore to
“explain” the many beings as differentiations of a being which “ought
to” be one is seen to result in saying with or without disguises that
being-as-being is both present and not present in the differentiated
being.
Further since the “second principle,”
the disruptor or differentiator of being must be other than being, it
necessarily must be represented as non-being. This involves according
non-being some sort of reality, some status alongside that of being.
But non-being is not. What non-being actually represents is the
ability of the intellect to make true negative judgments. A
phenomenology and metaphysic of the cognitional order could perhaps
show that negative judgments do not point to real non-being, even
non-being in the human mind. At any rate, there is no non-being in
the world; therefore non-being cannot function as a real principle of
differentiation among things.
My suggestion is that the search for
a second principle, begun from the high ground of being, can never
succeed. Beings are plainly different from one another. This does
not mean that they are differentiated in the extra-cognitional
order.
But are there not two distinct
questions that can be asked about any thing: “Is it?” and if it is,
“What is it?” Do not all thing-that-are agree in that they are, and
differ in their “What’s”? Do not all things-that-are, agree in
“existence,” and differ in “essence”? Is not essence the
differentiator of existence?
If it is to be maintained seriously
that there is no non-being, the question “is it,” allowing for either
a “yes” answer or a “no” answer, is inadmissible. There is no
alternative to being. Everything is. Thus there is no ultimate
intelligibility in the contention that all things that are agree in
this, that they are all opposed to, or even equally opposed to,
non-being—they would be at one, as it were, in the non-non-being
feature.
Palpable instances of coming-to-be
and ceasing-to-be may encourage the acceptance of non-being as a real
alternative. But is it anything more than an imaginative luxury to
imagine a thing as non-existent, then imagine it as existent, and thus
to suppose that in the real world the giving of existence can be the
giving of existence to the non-existent, which is not. Or to
suppose that a thing in the real world with the quality of
non-existence loses this “quality” and gains existence—or, at the
other end, loses existence to gain non-existence? Can there really be
a thing which is neutral in this way to existence or non-existence?
Is it not the case that everything exists?
If non-existence is not taken as a
real alternative, if it be admitted that everything exists, it might
still be possible to claim that all things are the same in that they
exist, but differ in their what’s. To say this, however, is to say no
more than that there is a general notion of being and that there are
more particular notions of individual beings or kinds of beings.
The distinction between “being” and,
for example, “dog,” is then a distinction between the more general and
the less general. This is a logical or cognitional distinction, which
does not necessarily reflect anything in the nature of things. Nor
does it necessarily point to any real composition within things. It
is analogous to the distinction made between “animal” and “dog” when
it is said that Rover is a dog and Rover is an animal, which
distinction does not point to two distinct principles within Rover—dog
and animal. Rover is a dog who is an animal, an animal who is a dog.
His being a dog and his being an animal are the same in him,
even though there are other animals. Similarly, Rover is both a being
and a dog—there are other beings, but this does not change the fact
that for him, to be a dog is to be a being, to be a being is to
be a dog.
Suppose it is said that a thing must
be before it can be a dog or a tree or whatever. This formula
shows only that there can be a concept of pseudo-concept of being (or
thing or substance for that matter) which is more universal than that
of dog or tree.
It might be said that essence limits
existence. In most applications this formula merely disguises the
limitation or restriction or a more universal to a less universal, the
contraction of a genus to a species by the addition of a specific
difference. Here the limitation of being by essence is a logical and
not a metaphysical limitation. It may be objected that being is not a
genus, as Aristotle has told us. But the citation of this
Aristotelian bon mot does not insulate one from criticism if it
goes hand-in-hand with a doctrine which treats being as though it
were a genus. As soon as it is said that being is diversified by
essence or by anything else, being is being treated as a genus. In
the extra-cognitional world, there are no “principles of
diversification.” The extra-cognitional world is not diversified,
but simply diverse. The expression “essence limits existence” is only
a variant of “being is differentiated”: as used in this and in similar
phrases, “limit” is logical rather than real.
One may say that a dog is limited in
not being a man, that he is limited in not being able to do the things
which a man can do and conversely that the man is limited because he
cannot do the things which a dog can do. And both the man and the dog
are called limited in that they are not “all being.” These statements
reflect the truth of the negative judgment “a man is not a dog” and “a
man is not all-being” or, by the questionable process of obversion, “a
man is a non-dog, a man is non-all-being.” The danger in these
formulas is that they may be taken to mean that the man has in him
real non-doghood in a sense similar to that in which he has real
intelligence. There is however no real non-doghood in the man or real
non-manhood in the dog. There is no non-being in the
extra-cognitional world.
Is limitation real? Granted that a
dog cannot read or write, is this a real restriction upon him? Is he
trying to read or write, but being prevented from doing so by
something real? If the latter were the case, the restriction the
limitation might be real. But it is no real restriction upon the dog
that the negative judgment “This animal cannot write” can be applied
to the dog.
The same criticisms apply to the
limitation of the man or the dog in contrast to “all being” or to
God. Unless it could be shown that the man or the dog has an urge to
be or to become “all being” or God, the fact that he is not these does
not constitute a real restriction upon him. It indicates only that a
certain true negative judgment can be formed about him, not that there
is real non-being in him.
But does the man, the dog or the tree
not have existence and is not existence of itself unlimited? Is not
existence which is of itself unlimited contracted in him by essence to
the existence of a dog, a man, or a tree?
To say that existence is, of itself,
unlimited, has, after what we have just said, an unpleasant ring. Is
something trying to limit existence? Is non-existence trying to get a
foothold in reality, and is it being thrust back into the outer
darkness? Is there a counterforce which cannot inure existence “of
itself”? If, however we accept the phrase for a moment, we can
conjure up two prima facie meanings: (1) That there is a
subsistent existence, an Ipsum Esse Subsistens (God) which is
unlimited; (2) That the universal notion of existence or being can be
entertained by someone’s mind without being contracted to its
subordinate concepts. Now “unlimited” existence, in either of these
two meanings, is not to be found in a tree. There is no existence in
a tree other than the existence of a tree. If existence be taken as
act of existing, the tree does not exercise any act of existing other
than that of a tree. It does not exercise existence which is
unlimited per se, but is cut down to size, to a mere tree. To
say that existence is of itself not diverse and is diversified into
that of a tree or a horse is an exercise in imagination whereby a
primitively undiversified act is subsequently diversified. The tree
does not now have, and never did have, any existence other than its
existence as a tree. To regard a tree or a horse as diverse
modifications of an act of existing which is of itself not diverse,
requires either that the tree or horse be taken as modifications of
the divine existence—a type of pantheism, or that they be taken as
derivatives from someone’s universal notion of existence—logic
creating the extra-logical world. In either case, the primal
unity—here the unity of “unlimited” existence—has been half-destroyed;
this primal unity both appears and does not appear in the
“differentiated” product, and only the vocabulary, the language of
existence and essence, is new.
From “existence of itself unlimited,”
which fits ill with essence, we may pass to “essence considered
absolutely,” which has no existence. It is argued that an essence
such as doghood can have two modes of existence, one in the concrete
physical dog, the other in the mind of the man who knows the dog.
Therefore, it is urged that doghood absolutely considered abstracts
both from existence in the dog and existence in the intellect. Since
these are taken to be two possible modes of existence, it is urged
that doghood in itself, doghood absolutely considered, abstracts from
all existence. As abstracting from all being it is in itself
nothing. This principle, which is in itself nothing, is then taken as
a metaphysical constituent of the extra-cognitional world (and as an
explanatory principle in a theory of predication: this nothing is said
to be what is predicated for example of Rover in the judgment “Rover
is a dog”).
There are many objections to this
position. It is said that essence abstracts from all existence. But
there is no abstracting without an abstractor. Properly speaking, it
is not that essence abstracts from all existence but rather that some
intellects are apparently able to consider essence in abstraction from
all existence (this consideration is in fact more imaginational than
intellectual). Essence in its absolute consideration is not a neutral
element which enters into the dog in the dog, and the dog in the human
intellect, but is rather firmly and solely located in the human
imagination.
Second, it should be clear that the
existence of dog in the dog and the “existence” of the dog in the
human mind are not on a par. To say that when man understands dog,
dog exists in his intellect, is an expression which is useful in
affirming the realism of human knowledge. If it is used, one ought
not lose sight of the fact that the “existence” of the dog in the
human mind is derivative from and inferior to the existence of dog in
the dog.
Third, there is a questionable
logical procedure involved in saying that since dog can have two modes
of existence, dog of itself has therefore no existence. This would be
analogous to saying that since a dog may weigh ten pounds or twenty
pounds of fifty pounds, therefore of itself it has no weight. The
consideration that some dogs weigh ten pounds, some twenty pounds,
etc., issues rather in the judgment that of itself or in itself a dog
has weight. Similarly, to say that dog can exist either in the dog or
in the intellect would mean that dog in itself, or of itself, has
existence.
These considerations invite an
inquiry into the value of the phrase “of itself” for metaphysical
purposes. The phrase would not be used in such connections as those
discussed above were it not for the attempt to give a metaphysical
employment to the absolute consideration of essence. To many minds
the phrase “the dog of itself” probably conjures up the neutral dog
abstracting from all existence. It is clear that this dog, if he is a
dog, has no role to play in metaphysics (or anywhere else). It would
be possible to take the phrase “dog of itself” as meaning the dog in
virtue of being a dog and not in virtue of some concomitant
attribute. This would be a legitimate use of the phrase in
metaphysics. Otherwise, the phrase “dog of itself” like similar
expressions, “dog per se” etc., is redundant. For “dog of
itself” it is better to substitute “dog.” When this is done, there
should be no particular scandal in saying the dog exists and that the
dog has existence.
But there is an argument based on
real causation, and therefore apparently non-cognitional in origin,
which seems to say that a thing “in itself” or “of itself” does not
exist, or does not have existence. A horse is a product of generation,
he is cause—therefore he does not exist “of himself.” (According to a
similar line of reasoning, a horse is caused by God, and so does not
exist “of himself.”) So there is a horse-of-itself, which has no
being whatever until or unless it is summoned into being by its
generators or causes.
The position, and the meaning, of “of
itself” has been shifted. The expression “the horse does not exist of
itself,” is not equivalent to “the horse-of-itself does not exist.”
In the latter expression the “of itself” has been attached, dubiously,
to horse. The former expression means only that all horses are
generated. The latter posits a non-existent entity. The mistake
seems to arise from considering, in some fashion (the force of
metaphysical imagination is not meagre), a self-caused or uncaused
horse. It is not hard to see that there are no such. Then this
strange beast, the self-caused or uncaused horse which does not exist,
becomes the “essence” of the horses which do exist. The fairly simply
observation that there are no ungenerated horses (a true negative
judgment) gets twisted into the assertion of real non-being, the
ungenerated horse who somehow explains or constitutes horses—all of
which are generated!
Grammatico-logical analysis quickly
“discovers” in the caused thing two elements, two constituents—the
thing “itself” and its being-caused. The thing “itself” is uncaused,
or is perhaps neither caused nor uncaused, indifferent to cause. The
thing “itself” can then be represented as standing over against its
cause.
It may first appear as a “floating
possible” antecedent to the action of the cause. When this
imaginational picture is rejected, it appears as an element,
concurrent in the caused thing with the effect of the cause, which
escapes the causality of the cause.
But it may be seen that this
characterization of the thing “itself” must likewise be false.
Causes, to the extent that they are causes, are responsible both for
the derivation of the caused from them, and the difference of
the caused from them. There can be no causality unless the caused is
different from the cause—and if the difference is not the result of
the cause, but self-sufficient or the result of other forces, to this
extent the cause is not a cause. (Therefore, if there is a radical
derivation of all caused things from a First Cause, that First Cause
must be responsible both for their dependence of things upon Him, and
their difference from Him.)
If the dialectic is actually carried
this far, the element in the caused which escapes the effectivity of
the cause may be seen to be—nothing. But sad to say, too often a
positive nothing. The nothingness of the caused vis-à-vis the cause,
the nothingness, perhaps, of the creature over against the Creator.
The thing “itself” is nothing—but is still present in the thing which
is.
The conclusion, that a positive
nothing is a constituent of existing things, should have shown that
the original analysis, dividing the caused thing into the thing
“itself” and its being-caused, was radically defective. “Logical” as
it undoubtedly was, it told us nothing about reality. If we look at
the caused thing, we can see why a distinction between it “itself”
and its being-caused had to be unfruitful. To the extent that a thing
is caused, it is through and through caused. In a caused thing, to
the extent to which it is caused, there is no “thing itself” over
against its being caused. Facile analysis was a failure. “Horse in
itself” either means nothing, or else is equivalent to horse—existent
horse, caused horse—since all horses are existent and all horses are
caused.
There is no good reason to shy away
from the formula “It is of the nature of horses to exist.” There is
the old Kant-inspired argument that the imaginary horse also has horse
nature, that it is every bit as horsy as the real horse—but just try
to pull a wagon with an imaginary horse. At this stage of the
argument it is clear that to say that it is of the nature of a horse
to exist does not have the fantastic implications that a horse is
uncaused, or that a horse causes himself, or that there is a
non-existent, but horsy, uncaused horse. No, it is of the nature of a
horse to exist as a caused thing, as a generated thing.
Many metaphysical efforts have been
seen to be misplaced, and sometimes, erroneous, exercises in logic.
Should we infer from all this that any “deep-level” enquiry into being
and beings either results from, or issues in, a confusion of the
cognitional and the extra-cognitional orders? No. Rather, that there
is no shortcut which brings us to an intellectual possession of being
prior to a careful study of things in their extra-cognitional
reality. To profess to consider being, while considering things as
slightly (and slightingly) as possible is to invite non-being, the
logical counterpoise of being, to function as a “real” principle, to
play endless games of “metaphysical hide-and-seek” with being.
Existentially neutral essences, essence absolutely considered, the
thing “of itself,” the disruptor, the differentiator—all these are so
many non-beings which this sort of “logic” sets up to make the
metaphysical enterprise easy and (!) quick.
There is no reason for metaphysicians
to give up their task, but they must rid their science of logical and
imaginational intrusions. This program has been seen to mean,
principally, ridding metaphysics of non-being. While it is possible
to formulate true negative judgments, and while it is possible to
imagine or pretend to imagine non-being as darkness, empty space,
etc., the metaphysician can never compromise the principle that there
is no non-being. If he is obsessed with some supposed necessity to
explain the world quickly, explain manyness, explain “contingency,”
etc., he cannot get beyond a world of opinion in which is not
takes its place as the partner of is.
Experience—the experience of
metaphysics being subverted by logic—has shown that the
metaphysician’s procedure must be more empirical, closer to things,
and far more painstaking. Let us examine these suggestions as they
might be worked out in one prime case, that of causation. It may be
true that the interconnectedness of things is through causation, and
that causing is basically a giving of being, a giving of existence.
Such considerations would have to be elaborated, however, in respect
to concrete instances of causing, such as the generation of plants and
animals. Close cooperation would have to be maintained with Biology.
Further, generation would have to be taken, not as a causal “example”
of causation (as though we know all about causation and had merely to
“illustrate” our knowledge), but as an instance in which we may be
able to see causation.
There is the obvious danger also that
in approaching reality with a pre-conceived formula to test, we may
find just what we want—either that the formula fits or that it does
not. Still there is a great gain if we do not take causation in a
slap-bang fashion as “of course” the giving of being to non-being, to
the non-existent, or to the existentially indifferent. If it is
fruitful to speak of a caused thing as a receptor of existence, we
must realize fully that there can be no receptors of existence which
are not receiving existence, no receptors of existence which do not
exist, no receptors of existence which are not constituted by the
existence which they receive. It is possible, though, that such
notions as “giving of existence” and “receptor of existence” may be
too bold, or too inexact. Perhaps these formulas are inseparable from
the imaginational framework in which non-being “acquires” being. If
so, they would have to be surmounted, in the continuing effort to
understand the causing of one thing by another.
Probably metaphysics has betrayed
itself so often to logic through a passion for explanation.
Explanation is itself logical rather than extra-cognitional. A cause
produces its effect. If I say that the cause explains the
effect, or the effect the cause, the way is open to supposing that the
world must explain itself to me—that the world must satisfy my logical
and imaginational requirements.
In sciences which are more-or-less
directed to practical results, to predictions which may be useful in
controlling or modifying things, the intrusion of logical and
imaginational elements perhaps does no great harm. The furnishing of
quick pragmatic explanations (that such are proposed as “tentative”
should not at all blind us to their true nature) is to be expected; a
confusion of the logical with the extra-cognitional may be not worth
avoiding. The metaphysical enterprise requires more care, and offers
less immediate rewards. It is not easy to know things as they are.
University of Windsor,
Windsor, Ontario, Canada
Note: Appended to the
article was the following paragraph, which begins with a
superscripted numeral “1” that oddly has no counterpart within the
article's published version. I asked Lawrence Dewan, O.P., Deck’s
literary executor, who submitted the article to The New Scholasticism, about this. He said the appended text is an “addendum”
that should not have been numbered as if it were a reference note.
When I asked him about its beginning with “On pages 6-16,” which makes
no sense given the printed article’s pagination, Father Dewan replied that the editor
unfortunately ignored the published version's page numbering. I thank him for these
clarifications. This online version is on one web page, so I have
deleted the confusing phrase.
Anthony Flood
July 11, 2006
I have taken various attempts to
describe, or to demonstrate, the distinction between essence and
existence as instances of the substitution of logic and imagination
for metaphysics. The arguments and notions outlined are to be found,
in various formulations and various combinations, in many neo-Thomistic
authors. It is to be noted that all neo-Thomists see this distinction
as central to philosophy, and as “real” rather than, or in addition
to, cognitional or logical. My point is that the notions and
arguments often employed by such writers, who are making a great
effort to delineate a realistic metaphysics, are susceptible to the
charge of logicism. For the arguments and positions themselves, cf.
e.g., Jacques Maritain, Existence and the Existent (New York,
1948), p. 36; Etienne Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of St.
Thomas Aquinas (New York, c.1956), pp. 35-38; Gilson, Elements
of Christian Philosophy (Garden City, 1959), pp. 102, 191, 194;
Gerard Smith The Philosophy of Being (New York, 1961), pp.
69-79; George Klubertanz and Maurice Holloway, Being and God
(New York, 1963), pp. 111-114. For the notion of the “limitation” or
“restriction” of existence by essence, common to almost all neo-Thomists,
cf. especially J. D. Robert, “Le Principe: ‘Actus non limitatur nisi
per potentiam realiter distinctam,’” Revue Philosophique de Louain,
XLVII (1949), pp. 44-70; W. Norris Clarke, The Limitation of Act
by Potency: Aristotelianism or Neoplatonism?,” The New
Scholasticism, XXVI (1952), pp. 167-194; Arthur Little, The
Platonic Heritage of Thomism (Dublin, 1949), pp. 208-220. For
“Essence absolutely considered” cf. especially Joseph Owens, An
Elementary Christian Metaphysics (Milwaukee, 1963), pp. 131-142;
Owens, “Common Nature: A Point of Comparison between Thomistic and
Scotistic Metaphysics,” Medieval Studies, XIX (1957), pp. 1-14.
Posted July 11, 2006
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